Inadequate vitamin D status could thus be a risk factor for the development of IMF in chimpanzees 11. It was previously demonstrated that increasing PTH levels increase blood pressure, cause cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, and interstitial fibrosis of the heart 18. There is also an inverse relationship between serum 25-OHD and parathyroid hormone (PTH) concentrations in humans, with progressively increasing PTH when 25-OHD falls under 75 nmol/L. An inhibitory role for vitamin D in cardiac fibrosis has been demonstrated in humans and animals 15, 16, 17, principally through inhibition of the main pro-fibrotic factor transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1). Husbandry and nutrition need to be investigated as possible risk factors in great ape CVD, as research indicates that zoo-housed great apes are more affected by CVD than their wild counterparts 11. However, little has been published regarding the aetiopathogenesis and risk factors associated with myocardial fibrosis in chimpanzees 13, 14. One such CVD, idiopathic myocardial fibrosis (IMF), where cardiac muscle is progressively replaced by connective tissue, affects up to 91% of zoo-housed chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes) in Europe and 77% in the United States 11, 12. The authors have previously hypothesised the role of vitamin D deficiency in ape cardiovascular disease (CVD), which is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in captive great apes 10, 11. The effects of vitamin D are likely to be similar in great apes and humans due to their genetic and phenotypic similarities, thus vitamin D deficiency could have a severe negative impact on the health of great apes. 25-OHD is converted by the kidneys into the active form 1,25-hydroxyvitamin D, which interacts via the vitamin D receptor, a nuclear hormone receptor expressed in many cells including cardiomyocytes and is thought to directly regulate over 2000 genes 4, 9. 25-OHD is the major circulating metabolite and the recommended biomarker used to measure vitamin D status due to its stability and long half-life 7, 8. Both vitamin D 2 and D 3 are inactive forms that are converted in the liver into 25-hydroxyvitamin D 2 (25-OHD 2) and 25-hydroxyvitamin D 3 (25-OHD 3), the sum of which is referred to as total 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OHD).
#CHIMPANZEE HAND REACHING OUT FOR HUMAN SKIN#
Vitamin D comprises a range of fat-soluble secosteroids that are synthesised in the skin from ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation (vitamin D 3) or obtained from dietary sources (vitamin D 2 and D 3) 4. Apart from the well-known role of vitamin D in calcium homeostasis and the musculoskeletal system, vitamin D has a wide range of other biological functions and prolonged vitamin D deficiency has been associated with a variety of disorders in humans such as cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, cancers, autoimmune diseases, and respiratory infections 3, 4, 5, 6. Vitamin D deficiency in humans is being described as a pandemic, and is associated with healthcare costs of billions of Euros in Europe 1, 2.
A review of husbandry and nutrition practices is recommended to ensure optimal vitamin D supply for these endangered animals. Inadequate 25-OHD serum concentrations are widespread in the chimpanzee population in Europe and could be a risk factor for the development of idiopathic myocardial fibrosis, a major cause of mortality in this species, as well as other diseases.
This is the first large-scale study on vitamin D status of non-human great apes in human care. The season of the year, health status of the animal, and the provision of daily outdoor access had a significant effect on vitamin D status. Of these samples, 33.1% indicated inadequate vitamin D status, using the human reference interval (25-OHD < 50 nmol/L). Serum samples (n = 245) from chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes) housed at 32 European zoos were measured for 25-hydroxyvitamin D 2, 25-hydroxyvitamin D 3 and total 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OHD) using liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. Vitamin D plays a crucial role in overall health and its deficiency is associated with a range of disorders, including cardiovascular disease, which is a leading cause of death in great apes. While vitamin D deficiency is a public health concern in humans, comparatively little is known about vitamin D levels in non-human primates.
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